War Crimes: Definition, Types, and Tribunals

PERTANYAAN

What are war crimes and where are war criminals being prosecuted?

INTISARI JAWABAN

Gross violations of international humanitarian law are serious violations that are therefore categorized as war crimes. Perpetrators of war crimes are prosecuted through ad hoc international criminal tribunals, as well as the International Court of Justice.

Please read the review below for a further explanation.

 

ULASAN LENGKAP

This article is an English translation of Kejahatan Perang: Pengertian, Jenis, dan Peradilannya, written by Renata Christha Auli, S.H. and was published on 3 August 2022.

All legal information available on Klinik hukumonline.com has been prepared for educational purposes only and is general in nature (read the complete Disclaimer). In order to obtain legal advice specific to your case, please consult with Justika Partner Consultant.

Armed Conflict in International Humanitarian Law

The terms war and armed conflict are synonymous. The two terms are often used interchangeably to replace one another.[1] Henry Campbell Black defines war as hostilities (disputes) using armed forces that occur between nations, states, or rulers, or occur between citizens within a nation or state. Meanwhile, according to Pietri Verri, war is an armed hostility (dispute) between two or more countries involving their respective armed forces and governed by international law.[2]

From this understanding, the essential elements of war are:[3]

1. A situation of hostility or conflict that uses armed force; and
2. There are parties to the dispute.

Also read: Humanitarian Law Does not Talk about the Legality of War

War Crimes as Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law

Grave breaches of International Humanitarian Law ("IHL") are serious violations categorized as war crimes. The use of the term serious violations refers to the 1949 Geneva Convention which is known as grave breaches. Meanwhile, in human rights law, it is known as gross violation. However, in its development, the 1998 Rome Statute made it clearer that what is meant by grave violations of IHL are war crimes, and are known as the most serious crimes.[4]

The term war crimes became increasingly recognized as a result of the world wars and subsequent efforts to hold perpetrators criminally responsible. War crimes are heinous acts committed in time of war, and constitute a violation of IHL, for which the perpetrator can be punished.[5] Because, basically, IHL has basic rules in the form of:[6]

1. Ensure humane treatment to persons not taking part in hostilities;
2. Do not kill or injure protected persons;
3. Collect and care wounded and sick;
4. Respect lives and dignity of captured combatant and detained civilians;
5. Choice of means and methods of warfare is not unlimited.

Under the 1949 Geneva Conventions, war crimes are grave breaches of all four conventions. However, in several IHL provisions such as the 1998 Rome Statute, the International Criminal Tribunal for Former Yugoslavia ("ICTY"), the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ("ICTR"), Sierra Leone and the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor ("UNTAET") Regulation No. 2000/15, war crimes are serious violations of the laws and customs applicable in armed conflict.[7]

From the various explanations above, there are several elements of war crimes, namely:[8]

1. There is an act or acts that constitute a serious violation of the laws and customs of war;
2. The act is committed in a situation or in the context of armed conflict. This element is intended to distinguish between war crimes and ordinary criminal acts;
3. The act gives rise to individual criminal responsibility.

Types of War Crimes

The following are some examples of war crimes regulated under the main instruments of IHL whether International Armed Conflict ("IAC") or Non-International Armed Conflict ("NIAC"):[9]

1. Willful killing;[10]
2. Torture or inhumane treatment including biological experiments;[11]
3. Unlawful deportation or unlawful transfer or unlawful confinement of a protected person;[12]
4. Intentionally directing attacks or retaliation against civilian objects, that is, objects which are not military objectives.[13]

Objects and Persons Protected from War Crimes

According to Hans-Peter Gasser, objects protected from war crimes are civilian property, medical services, cultural objects, civil defense, and humanitarian organizations.[14]

Meanwhile, protected persons are divided into several categories, namely members of the armed forces and civilians who are wounded and sick, shipwreck victims, prisoners of war, interned civilians, civilians in enemy territory, and civilians in occupied territory.[15]

Also read: Killing Journalists on the Battlefield is a Violation of Humanitarian Law

Ad Hoc International Criminal Tribunals

War crimes are one of the oldest forms of international criminal offenses.[16] The following are some of the ad hoc international criminal tribunals, which prosecute war criminals:

1. International Military Tribunal Nürnberg

Prosecuted key members of the political, military, and economic leadership group of NAZI Germany. The series of hearings took place in 1945-1946 in the German city of Nürnberg. A total of 200 war crimes suspects were prosecuted in Nürnberg, and another 1,600 people were prosecuted in ordinary military courts.[17]

2. International Military Tribunal for the Far East

A tribunal that prosecuted perpetrators of war crimes by the Japanese army during its aggression against Asian and Pacific countries.[18]

3. ICTY

The Federation of Yugoslavia after the collapse of communism increasingly showed ethnic differences, and decided to separate from the Federation of Yugoslavia. The secession had the effect of causing wars in Yugoslavia. The ICTY was established with the aim of contributing to the restoration of peace by holding accountable those responsible for serious crimes under IHL.[19]

4. ICTR

Rwanda is a country in Central Africa whose population composition consists of the Hutu (85%) and Tutsi (15%) ethnicities. The Tutsi minority dominated the Rwandan government until the Hutu rebelled and committed genocide against the Tutsi. The ICTR aims to prosecute and bring to justice those responsible for genocide and other serious crimes in violation of IHL, particularly those committed by the Hutu.[20]

Permanent International Criminal Tribunals

In addition to these ad hoc international criminal courts, there is the International Criminal Court ("ICC"). The ICC is a permanent international criminal justice body, which has the power to exercise its jurisdiction over a person who has committed a serious crime condemned by the international community (the most serious crimes of concern to the international community as a whole).[21]

Under Article 5 of the 1998 Rome Statute, the ICC has material jurisdiction over 4 types of criminal offenses, namely:

1. Genocide;
2. Crimes against humanity;
3. War crimes; and
4. Crimes of aggression.

In conclusion, IHL has basic rules, one of which is the prohibition to kill protected people. However, in reality, when war takes place, it cannot be denied that violations of IHL can occur. These violations are interpreted as war crimes. Acts of war crimes can give rise to individual criminal responsibility. Historically, there have been several ad hoc international criminal tribunals that prosecuted perpetrators of war crimes, such as the International Military Tribunal Nürnberg, the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, ICTY, and ICTR. In addition, the permanent international criminal court is the ICC, one of whose material jurisdictions is war crimes.

These are the answers we can provide, we hope you will find them useful.

Legal Basis:

1. The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (1949 Geneva Convention);
2. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (Additional Protocol I 1997);
3. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (Additional Protocol II 1997)
4. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998 Rome Statute);
5. Law Number 59 of 1958 on The Participation of the Republic of Indonesia in the Entire Geneva Conference of August 12, 1949.

Reference:

1. Ambarwati (et.al), Hukum Humaniter Internasional dalam Studi Hubungan Internasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2009;
2. Sri Setianingsih Suwardi, Beberapa Catatan Mahkamah Pidana Internasional (International Criminal Court) dalam Kaitannya dengan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB), Jurnal Hukum dan Pembangunan, No. 4, Vol. 33, 2003;
3. Tolib Effendi, Hukum Pidana Internasional, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Yustisia, 2014;
4. Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013.

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[1] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 28.

[2] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 26.

[3] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 26.

[4] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 47.

[5] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 48.

[6] Ambarwati (et.al), Hukum Humaniter Internasional dalam Studi Hubungan Internasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2009, p. xviii.

[7] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 49.

[8] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 49.

[9] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, pp. 114-115.

[10] Article 50 The Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (“1949 Geneva Convention”) I, Article 50 1949 Geneva Convention II, Article 130 1949 Geneva Convention III, Article 147 1949 Geneva Convention IV, Article 8 section (2) letter a number i Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (“1998 Rome Statute”).

[11] Article 50 1949 Geneva Convention I, Article 51 1949 Geneva Convention II, Article 130 1949 Geneva Convention III, Article 147 1949 Geneva Convention IV, Article 8 section (2) letter a number ii 1998 Rome Statute.

[12] Article 147 Geneva Convention IV, Article 8 section (2) letter a number vii 1998 Rome Statute.

[13] Article 51 section (1) Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (“Additional Protocol I 1997”) I, Article 8 section (2) letter b number ii 1998 Rome Statute, etc.

[14] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 124.

[15] Yustina Trihoni Nalesti Dewi, Kejahatan Perang dalam Hukum Internasional dan Hukum Nasional, Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada, 2013, p. 124.

[16] Tolib Effendi, Hukum Pidana Internasional, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Yustisia, 2014, p. 151.

[17] Tolib Effendi, Hukum Pidana Internasional, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Yustisia, 2014, pp. 154-155.

[18] Tolib Effendi, Hukum Pidana Internasional, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Yustisia, 2014, p. 172.

[19] Tolib Effendi, Hukum Pidana Internasional, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Yustisia, 2014, pp. 188-189.

[20] Tolib Effendi, Hukum Pidana Internasional, Yogyakarta: Penerbit Pustaka Yustisia, 2014, pp. 204-206.

[21] Sri Setianingsih Suwardi, Beberapa Catatan Mahkamah Pidana Internasional (International Criminal Court) dalam Kaitannya dengan Perserikatan Bangsa-Bangsa (PBB), Jurnal Hukum dan Pembangunan, No. 4, Vol. 33, 2003, p. 447.